All right. Good evening, everyone. Thank you so much for being here. My name is Katherine Thomas and I'm the Faculty Director of the University of Delaware as Materials Center for material culture studies, thing tank, Research Forum for the current academic year. And it's my great pleasure to welcome you all of everyone joining us tonight for this special event. Thing tank is a think tank for the study of material things. Each year of the forum feature is a topical theme of study. This year's theme is material futures, which explores the relationship between material culture and imaginings of the future. Over the course of this academic year. For think-tank Faculty Fellows and eight graduate fellows from the University of Delaware are sharing their works in progress on material futures, ranging from art making two books to dissertations and theses to scientific field research. Before I introduce our esteemed speaker for this evening, I'd like to call our attention to the material relationships that afford us this opportunity. By reading from the University of Delaware is living land acknowledgment. This statement was crafted by the indigenous programming subcommittee of the university's anti-racism initiative. The University of Delaware occupies lands vital to the web of life for Lynn island, API and Nancy Koch who share their ancestry, history, and future in this region. Udi has financially benefited from this regional occupation, as well as from indigenous territories that were expropriated through the United States land grant system, European colonizers and later the United States Forest and anticoag and Lynn island API westward and northward where they formed nations in present day Oklahoma, Wisconsin, and Ontario, Canada. Others never left their homelands or returned from exile when they could. We express our appreciation for ongoing indigenous stewardship of the ecologies and traditions of this region. While the harms to indigenous people and their homelands are beyond repair, we commit to building right relationships going forward by collaborating with tribal leadership on actionable institutional steps. To learn more about these efforts to become involved in the university's anti-racism initiative. Please click the link shared in the chat for our Zoom participants tonight. I would also like to express my thanks to the National Endowment for the Humanities and Delaware humanities who support has made it possible for the Center to develop thing tank and many other interdisciplinary programs. For this evening's event, we are grateful for generous support from the departments of anthropology, history, sociology and criminal justice, and political science and international relations. I'd also like to thank my colleagues who have helped make tonight's program possible. Namely Michela harden, Sarah Wasserman, carlos were on Montero, Colleen pop, Karen Pierre, Stephanie Lambert, and Meghan Angeles. It is now my distinct pleasure to introduce our speaker, Dr. Mimi Schiller. Dr. Schiller is the dean of the global school at Worcester Polytechnic Institute in Worcester, Massachusetts. At WPI. She has led institutional efforts to establish a new department of integrative and global studies. To expand the university's highly successful global projects program. And to foster graduate training in the areas of science and technology for innovation in global development and community climate adaptation. Prior to joining WPI, she was Professor of Sociology, head of the Sociology Department and founding director of the Center for mobility is Research and Policy at Drexel University in Philadelphia. Among the many honors and fellowships that Dr. Schiller has earned through the years. She was awarded the Dr. on RS casa from Roskilde University, Denmark in 2015. Dr. Schiller is an internationally recognized scholar and higher education leader. She is founding co-editor of the journal mobilities and past president of the International Association for the History of transport, traffic and mobility. She helped to establish the new mobilities paradigm and is considered to be a key theorist in the interdisciplinary field of mobilities research and in Caribbean Studies. Dr. Schiller has received funding from the National Science Foundation, the British Academy, the Arts and Humanities Research Council, the MacArthur Foundation, the mobile lives forum, and the Graham Foundation in Advanced Studies in the fine arts. As this list of funders connotes, Dr. Sellers work is exemplary in its interdisciplinarity and breadth. Her research is comparative and cross temporal, yet her analyses are always fine grained and experienced near she is an acclaimed theoretician. Yet her research practically informs the efforts of scientists, politicians, corporate executives, and activists to address pressing social problems. She has offered expert consultation, e.g. for the World Bank Global facility for disaster risk reduction, the National Science Foundation, Haiti earthquake research review, the Social Science Research Council's Climate Change Group, and companies such as Michelin. Dr. Sellers, record of scholarship is extraordinary. She has published more than 125 articles and book chapters, 120. I just have to say that one more time. And does the author or co editor of 15 books? I first got to know Dr. sellers work through her third monograph, published in 2012 and titled citizenship from below, erotic agency and Caribbean freedom. A deeply moving study of the struggles for freedom and political inclusion among emancipated peoples in Jamaica, Haiti, and the wider, wider Caribbean region. Her 2014 monograph titled Aluminum Dreams, the making of light modernity, which we will hear a little bit more about tonight, is a landmark work in the sociology of materials and mobility. Her most recent books include mobility, justice, the politics of movement in an age of extremes, published in 2018, Ireland futures, Caribbean survival in the Anthropocene, published in 2020, and advanced introduction to mobilities published just last year. I'm thrilled that we have the opportunity this evening to learn from Dr. Schiller and engage with her scholarship. And so without further ado, I present Dr. Mimi seller. First. I want to say thank you so much Dr. Thomas for that wonderful introduction. Really careful reading. Practice there to track some of the things I've worked on. I'm thrilled to be here at University of Delaware. Very excited about the thing tank, the concept, and the Center for material culture studies, the work you're doing. And as soon as I got the invitation, I just knew I had to come and speak because aluminum is such a perfect example of thinking with material culture, thinking about futures in particular. And that's what my talk is kind of looking back at history in a way, but their histories of different imaginaries of the future. And that's what I call Aluminum Dreams because it's the way this material was wrapped into these different future dreams, wishes, desires. Aluminum is a material that's crucial to modernity and to modernism and to modernization. Each of those having slightly different registers, not simply as a new material out of which to make particular objects, although it certainly was that. But also it became a means of innovating across the entire infrastructure of Transport, Communication, architecture, urbanism. This talk, which is based on my book, Aluminum Dreams, but also some more recent things I keep learning about aluminum and I could speak endlessly about it. It describes how invention and innovation in aluminum transformed the 20th century and continue to shape the world today and the material culture that we live in today. The built environment that has grown up to support our current global economy is a material culture based partly in fossil fuel. We think of it as a fossil fuel economy, but also in aluminum, especially in the cars, the trains, the planes that keep our economies moving. The lightweight cans and packages of aluminum foil foods that fill our supermarkets. The high power electricity lines that make up our long distance power grid. And the massive hydroelectric power projects that were built to support aluminum smelting. And also finally, aluminum is crucial to an, a powdered form to all kinds of cosmetics, foods, paint, vaccines, bombs, rocket fuel, and new nanotechnologies. So it comes in a lot of different material forms that a lot of different scales. And I'm going to talk about those today. I'm gonna begin first with inventing late modernity, which is part of the subtitle of the book. Because I wanted to think about how aluminum demands attention because it embeds crucial transnational processes into our everyday lives. And it promises design solutions across a whole range of applications. And yet it also causes a lot of unacknowledged environmental and human harm. But a lot of people don't really know about, we don't really think about it. Aluminum is a material with great potential for supporting life, but also inherent powers of destruction, which come with the smelting of aluminum, which is based on the mining of bauxite. Although we recognize the way in which oil was central to the modern world because of the wars that were waged to control the oil fields and the fossil fuel economy. And the recent calls around energy independence, energy transitions, energy sovereignty, and then the consequences of global warming. We seldom notice. It's what I call it's quiet accomplice. Because the wars that support this modern global economy were waged using aluminum skinned airplanes, aluminum armor plated tanks, aluminum based explosives, and the troops and military equipment that are moved around the world use often aluminum vessels, aluminum cargo carriers, long distance aluminum logistics systems for getting the latest weaponry and material around the world as quickly as possible. So those same qualities that make aluminum ideal and necessary for warfare and that led to its importance throughout the 20th century. Also make it ideal and necessary for new technologies of sustainability. Because we need energy efficient buildings, we need lighter and more fuel efficient transportation systems. We need new metal matrix materials and nanocomposite technologies. And all of these also use aluminum. So I'm gonna go back in history to look at how we invented late modernity. And I begin 130 some years ago when aluminum barely existed. And some of the first uses of it where these one-off special projects, the cast aluminum, oops, sorry, capstone on the Washington Monument or the statue in the middle of Piccadilly Circus. These were some of the first cast aluminum kinda major pieces in the world. And the vast majority of us, when we pick up an aluminum can or we get into an aluminum vehicle or we cradle and aluminum laptop computer like the one I have in front of me, or communicate through aluminum satellite telecommunications. We have limited awareness of the magnitude of the industrial expansion that's happening in very remote places and the scale of growth of the industry in these faraway minds and alumina refineries and melters, we take for granted the conveniences of modern life, comparing our lightness, speed, and modernity against those who lack them. And we think of those other places as backwards. Slow on modern, even though we're closely connected together. So aluminium first brought new possibilities to urbanism, transportation architecture and home design in the 1920s especially. And then into the, I'll be talking about the 30s, 40s, 50s. This is an Alcoa add from the 1920s with a beautiful crystal ball says, peer into the future. And light efficient bodily mobility began with these designs of a sort of ethereal city and these elevated highways and the image of fast moving cars and then infiltrated into our dwelling places, our everyday objects and packaging. So this is the famous 1931 designed by Norman Bel Geddes of what was called motorcar number eight, a teardrop shaped aerodynamic aluminum vehicle. And it drew on aeronautical design for streamlining, which affected design aesthetics throughout the 1930s. Then lead into designs like this, the stout scarab that William Stout made as the first minivan. And this is 1936. And he also designed a metal house that could be folded away and towed by a car. And his motto was implicate an add lightness. So modern cars and trains could be made into a living room on wheels. The home itself could become mobile. The trailer home, the minivan. All of these ideas of streamlining of vehicles connected to an idea of a kind of streamlining of our lifestyles as streamlining of how we lived, a lightening, a simplification of things. And aluminum was what made this design aesthetic possible. Arnaldo Mussolini, the brother of Benito of famous Italian fascism, said in the 1890s 32, just like the 19th century was the century of iron, heavy metals and carbon. So the 20th century should be the century of light metals, electricity and petroleum. So this was this dream that drove military development, design, modernization, and also forms of colonialism. Because the primary resource is bauxite that has to be turned into aluminum. So these things were all connected together. Electric grids, military power, weaponry, logistics, transportation, lightness and mobility. In architecture. In the 1930s, when aluminum was a new material being brought into design, the Empire State Building was in New York, was the first one to make really extensive use of aluminum for those exterior spandrels, which are the part of the building that gleam when it catches the sun. And it was beautiful, but it was also praised for the speed with which it was built. So the lateness is both the luminosity of the object and the way in which it could have these prefabricated pieces that were very quickly elevated into the building. So it was built more quickly than other buildings. Then we start to see in the 1840s this shift. And I can't do the entire history that the book tells more about this transition from the 20s and 30s into the 40s. But in the post-war period, US military buildup of the aluminum industry had to be utilized in postwar civilian design. And so we have images like this from the bone Corporation, which kind of tried to bring aluminum into all sorts of futuristic designs, these futuristic vehicles, this idea that this wartime industry that had led to us victory in World War II would now be converted into the civilian world. And here we see in by 1960, this is a Time Magazine cover by Boris or Tibet chef that shows the emergence of, it says rush hour in space, US and Russia take different roads and it's all about rockets and satellites. And the beginning of The Space Race and the Cold War. So I talked about in the book how in, amidst the gravity of the Cold War, it was aluminum that gave us the levity of the space age and enabled the dream of landing on the moon. It was aluminum that made the bombs explode, the rockets fire and the satellite's orbit. Heavy industry became lighter, ethereal electricity fluid through these expanding circuits and aluminum put us on the path towards dreams of dematerialization of cybernetic economies running on information superhighways. So I brought all of those visions of the future as well as those infrastructures of the future, the logistics of this kind of world that we were catapulted towards and the wars that supported it. And what I wanna do in the next part of the talk is just zoom in a little bit and focus on the idea of the home and mobilizing the home. Because home design was transformed by new forms of mobility, luminosity, and lightness in furniture, in food packaging and appliances and utensils. And also connected to that, I argue also in our routines, our schedules are practices of domesticity. Mobile home design came about through an association with those streamlined styles that came out of first the building of airplanes and then the cars like the ones I showed you, this efficiency of modern mobility. And that was brought into objects within the home in that starting in the 1930s, along with plastic, as plastic emerged, plastic also took on some of these shapes, but the shapes themselves come out of the aerodynamics of the vehicles that were built in aluminum. And this eventually enabled new developments in suburban living by the post-war period. So in, through that transition, home design became lighter and more mobile. Building processes were speeded up by pre-fabrication and cultural practices of domestic life generated what you could think of as futuristic structures of feeling. To use Raymond Williams term, the material objects, domestic practices and a structure of feeling of modernity all kind of came together. And of course, this was also very racialized and gendered. Here we see an Alcoa aluminum add called Christmas creations with all the different kinds of products you could find. It made an aluminum for the home. Everything from ladders to folding chairs to hots and dish where in golf clubs and coolers and All sorts of good things here. And it was this kind of shift in home design of objects in the home. That for me they really represent the difference between what we think of as the older Victorian material culture, right? Of wood and of iron work and of decorative things to this cooler, lighter kind of styling. And of course, thanks to aluminum, we have American icons such as the TV dinner. Here's the Swanson TV dinner ed, with its freezer to oven tray with each foods snugly tucked in its own little geometric compartment. Things like Jiffy pot popcorn that had that magically rising foil dome. Packaged prepared foods from the supermarket ready to heat and eat. Take-away containers that keep restaurant meals warm and go straight into the oven. Each of these reminds us that the utility of aluminum is as much about time savings as weight savings. It's light and fast to transport, but it also makes the chores of the kitchen lighter and faster. It was promoted as a way to free women, in particular from the burdens of housework, promising a new era of easy domestic labor and instant cuisine. And that is even though all the new electric appliances are arguably fragmented time and privatized women's work in the home. And that's a whole other part of the argument here in terms of this kind of white nuclear families, suburban style life, and then how that led to second-wave feminism. But I don't have time to go into that, but aluminum is sort of caught up in that story to aluminum. And I love this slide. This is another Alcoa add. It says the big sound and it has the soft drink making little sights and sounds. It was also part of a wider movement towards scientific efficiencies that would bring convenience not only into the home and the kitchen, but would also revolutionized logistics for the delivery of goods to those suburban homes. The logistics revolution was tied to a wider transformation of American infrastructure and transportation. That would also spawn fast-food drive-through restaurants, pull top cans, and then what eventually came to be seen as a throwaway culture. That fast packaged, use it up, throw it out. Culture kind of came out of aluminum and plastic to some extent, but aluminum played an important part in this. So just to go back a little too, like, okay, this home design itself. There was going back to the 130s. This important designed by Albert Frey in 1931 of an aluminum house. He had worked with Le Corbusier and was inspired by the Bauhaus and international style, but also the work of Frank Lloyd Wright and the American desert landscape. And he in a building project that was sponsored by manufacturers like Alcoa. He created this all aluminum house with aluminum floor joists and pipe columns clad with corrugated aluminum panels fastened with aluminum screws and washers. And it was an experimental house to reflect new technologies and materials. They saw the house as a prototype for a house of the future. And the idea was that it could be produced in great quantity at a low cost and assembled and disassembled quickly. So it's this kind of, these kind of quite Avant garde and revolutionary ideas were driving the initial design projects with aluminum. And of course, R Buckminster Fuller was very important in philosophizing and then implementing uses of aluminum. And he wrote e.g. when I speak of mobile dwellings, I do not refer to camping trailers are tenths. I speak of the dwellings which will stay fixed for many months or years, but are readily and economically transportable and re-install a bubble over wide ranges of distance. So he was a key like forecaster of the future who was deeply engaged with aluminum. In 1933, he designed the dime axion car, which you see on the bottom-right corner and read of this Time magazine cover. A three wheeled, streamlined aluminum skin vehicle that can carry up to ten passengers. He also designed a mobile travel trailer. But one of his most important ideas was the automated, lightweight and mobile democracy in house, which was first designed in 1927 to be mass-produced and transportable inside a metal tube that could be dropped by helicopter, which you see on the upper left into remote places and would be very environmentally efficient. That house design was modified over the years to this one. This is the die Maxine houses. It appeared in Fortune Magazine. And fathers sought to copy the automobile industry in systematizing and rationalizing the mass production of houses. And he placed a lot of importance on this shipment and assembly side of the design. And he also was very concerned with efficient use of resources, which anticipated the sustainability movement by decades and in fact inspired some practitioners of sustainability. And so he borrowed the most advanced aluminum fabrication techniques from the aircraft industry and wanted to make these houses that would be light, strong, energy-efficient, and also disaster proof, right? Like it was hurricane proof and had all these really interesting automated features inside. So of course, he was who came up, one of the people came up with the idea of doing more with less. He designed geodesic domes. And by the 1960s, people were really thinking about the limits of our planet and the future of life on Earth, and the realization of pollution, e.g. when Rachel Carson published Silent Spring. So Fuller's Techno utopian vision, it inspired in some ways the alternative counterculture and the cybernetic generation of the Whole Earth Catalog who went on to invent the internet. But it also inspired the military industrial complex, we might say. His geodesic domes were adopted by the US military as light, strong structures that can be airlifted into place on difficult terrains. He inspired creation of the GOD sick, what are called ray domes for the defense early warning system that was installed around the world. The 150th for Marine Corps Air delivered geodesic domes, the USA Moscow pavilion dome, the 1960s seven, Montreal World's Fair. So the point I wanna make is that his work has these tensions in it that fostered both the environmental movement and industrial and military installations around the world. This is the same like pinch point that I think we face today when we think about material futures. So I'm going to come back to that idea. Of course, it was more popularized the mobile home with the Wally biomes Airstream trailer. Here we see the airstream anesthetic meet the mass market in a version of late modernity on the road. And the idea of all of these designs though, was that aluminum construction techniques could lift the home off it's heavy foundations liberating modernist architecture to travel, to travel the highway, to travel around the world. And this was the beginning of this trend towards an American embrace of both mobile homes and prefab homebuilding, but it also was worldwide. So here we see one of John purveys designs. He was a French designer who also extended light portable prefab houses to the French colonies. He envisioned a tropical version of his mobile home and a desert version for different types of French colonies. And the idea was to manufacture them on an assembly line to transport them in a small aircraft, and then to be able to speedily construct them. So we see this global mobility, moving materials, designs and ideas around the world. And that's where I want to turn to a somewhat different topic because I wanted to bring this out from the American story with Europe in there to think about the Caribbean, which is the other region that I do a lot of work on. This is some, some newer work that's about musical cruising in al-Qa'ida's Caribbean. And I did this work in partnership with Andrew Martin, who's an ethnomusicologist. And it draws on this series of ads that Alcoa created in the 1950s to promote their cruises in the Caribbean. And believe it or not, this is how I first got interested in this history of aluminum because my partner bought me these ads off of eBay and said, Oh, these are really cool. Look at these ads. Like beautiful pictures of the Caribbean. And I was like, why was Alcoa running cruises and the Caribbean? What are you talking about? What is this? And the more I looked into it, the more of this advertising campaign I discovered, and the more the ads caught my attention. And so I started really thinking about how Alcoa was promoting its business. And these 16 day tourist cruises through the Caribbean region, which was an area that was crucial to its bauxite mining operations. Alcoa mind bauxite to make aluminum mainly in Suriname in the first half of the 20th century and then in Jamaica in the mid to sort of mid-seventies in the Caribbean. And so it was both having this. Massive environmental impact and yet promoting these beautiful places for cruises and for tourism. And it promoted them through an imagery of the Caribbean archipelago as a series of cultural and musical stepping stones. It aimed at capturing the imagination of perspective travelers through these advertisements that wove a lyric fantasy in flowery prose. The lovely islands of the West Indies stretch like stepping stones across the blue Caribbean. And this was wrapped around these vibrant artistic depictions of local dancers and music performers. And this is one example from Martinique and Guadalupe. They have different versions for different islands. This is one promoting Antigua with a steel pan band called brute force. Now, interestingly, Alcoa hired leading graphic artist James Bingham to depict these musical performances of each island. And they sent top sound recording producer named Cook to the Caribbean to capture the music of the region and recorded it and then sold. This is a record you could purchase from Alcoa. Not only go on the cruise and look at the beautiful pictures, but you could buy the music. And these records and images were cross marketed with the tourism advertising campaign. Just as Caribbean music was hitting the American mainstream. The company also sponsored the Caribbean arts festival in the 1880s. And in another series of ads, they use the prize-winning Caribbean paintings for their collection and for advertisements. These kinds of images are about the underlying mobility of tourists was based on the mobility of Alcoa is friendships and then it's cruise liners that it built. The freight chips. We're picking up bauxite from mines in the region, bringing it to Illumina, illumina refineries, and then to the United States where it was smelted in shelters, which fed into the massive military buildup and consumer markets that supported global US imperialism in the mid 20th century. So Alcoa was an empire building company. It was promoting archipelagic travel through the Caribbean as a sort of ancillary benefit of their vast aluminum Empire. And it's premised on the network of military, US military bases throughout the region, which of course protected it as our sort of see for tourists cruising. But the other thing about these ads is just contrast these images with the ones we were just looking at. A futurism of modernity of where we're heading. These are all looking backwards at this kind of folkloric culture. They're capturing the Caribbean in these kinds of ways of fixing it in the past and looking at the different cultures, different folkloric kind of musical sounds. And then in particular, these ones really look at this sort of primitive idea of the one showing Haiti is representing voodoo. And there's one on the right for Panama, showing us sort of indigenous medicine, man dance, right? So sorry, I'm Venezuelan witch Dr. as they called him. And a dance associated with that. So they took the dances like the bundle dance of Haiti and the garner handle of Venezuela and talk about the backward cultures and the primitivism there. And this was a draw and attraction for tourists, was the contrast between modernity and folklore. They've created the Caribbean as an idea of an exotic Archipelago of distinct islands through which tourists would move as they enjoyed these different folk cultures. They also were involved in sponsoring the Caribbean Festival, which was held in the late summer of 1952 in Puerto Rico. And various music performing groups were gathered there and then they were recorded. And probably the images that James being a maid, we're done at this event. And they promoted this with the Caribbean Tourism Association. And they had the idea of tourists bringing, able to bring a little bit of the islands home with them. And crucial to this process was academic and Musical Logical Research. Also. Here we see the organizers of the festival, one of them, least siliceous, was someone who became a choreographer, dancer and a musicologist who helped to collect the recordings of the Caribbean and kinda bring it into the US mainstream. And again, they produced a record for the Caribbean festival with music from Haiti, Puerto Rico, Suriname, Curacao, Martinique, Trinidad, Guadalupe. So I say all this just to think about the way in which material culture is also immaterial. It's not just the objects and I'd loved looking at all the objects in my research. But it's also the music, the dance, the sort of global relationships, the transnational relationships that were implicated in Alcoa is projects in the region and its extractive industry, extractive mining, but also extractive culture, extractive tourism that targeted these kind of racialized cultural products. With that said, though, it's important to note that Caribbean artistic and musical mobilities also speak to and sound out other kinds of archipelagic mobilities. First, there's the travel of the musicians, the dancers, the artists, and the other migrants who were producers of Caribbean musical cultures. And here we see the brute force Steel Orchestra that were shown in that earlier recording. They traveled to the United States and they played all around the country. They had a chance to have their own kind of musical mobilities. And these kinds of artistic musical mobilities have deep roots and roots of movement in the musical cross-fertilization throughout the circum Caribbean, where people traveled and created many different musical genres. Realizing those musical genres, reaching the mainland ports of South America, central America, the United States, cities like New Orleans, New York, et cetera, Caribbean musical genres or dynamic, constantly traveling. While the Alcoa advertising campaign and the Caribbean Tourism Association sought to freeze each Islands culture into a representative folk culture. Caribbean musicians played upon the complex lines of musical lineages and mixtures, pushing them forward towards the future rather than back towards the past. And this generates an alternate way to conceptualize what was happening here because it escaped the control and the framing of imperialist culture and the tourism industry, it escaped the idea of the Slow, backward colonized islands. So the brute force Steel Orchestra Recorded their music and their musical rhythms and their dance steps, mobilized the individuals who is moved by the music to enter the dance themselves. Caribbean musical forms have spread new dance steps, new rhythms, and new choreographies across the Americas. And I should point out that there are early recordings of folk music were done on aluminum disks. I forgot to say that Alan Lomax, the great Smithsonian sort of folk music collector, carried around by these aluminum disks to record the music on. If the modalities of tourism promotion in music recording encouraged tourists to bring a little bit of the islands home with them through their embodied mobilities. The archipelago of music also got inside the dominant culture and moved it in unexpected ways. It changed it. And I wanted to just play a little bit of the brute force Steel Orchestra as recorded in the 1950s. Because it will make you move. It's very hard not to dance to this music. Let me see if I can get this on. Okay. So I'm going to try to stop there. I think I stopped it. So I could play that for longer, but it just gives you a little taste of what that music sounded like at the time. I just wanted to end this section by thinking about how the embodied mobilities of dance itself transformed white Anglo-Saxon Protestant, American mainland culture. And beyond this, we could argue that the archipelagic mobilities of Caribbean culture exceeded the control of American empire and escaped the total consumption of tourists. Musical and artistic performativity over spilled island boundaries. It took submarine routes to use, come out broth weights term from island to island, and burrow deep into the mainland itself. As it traveled the crystallizing trajectories and pathways of musical mobilities. And that seems like maybe it takes us a long way from aluminum as a material culture, but it just feeds into a larger argument about the racialized and gendered structures of different kinds of labor, both productive, productive and reproductive. And I couldn't resist showing these ads from Kaiser Aluminum of these white working men. I call these the aluminum hunks because they're just so fun. But they're in contrast to the workers of the Suriname, of Jamaica, of the bauxite mind, these were the industrial kind of imagined working class who were benefiting from the aluminum industry. So in part four, I'm going to turn to the dystopian mobilities of aluminum. And then that'll lead me to the conclusion. I hope we'll have plenty of time for discussion still. So while ecologists have focused a lot on the energy demands and the CO2 emissions associated with the production of primary aluminum smelter. Industry insiders, the industry itself focuses on the idea that they reduce greenhouse gas emissions because the metal contributes towards lighter, more energy efficient transport. And it's that important idea that aluminum is recyclable and that it helps our energy efficiency and that we need it for the energy transition. That is referred to as the idea that it's a green metal. When I say green metal, it's like it's a metal that's supposed to support the environment. But this apparent lightness and efficiency, greenness of aluminum, which the industry heavily promotes, is based in ecology, which has two wrench bauxite out of the earth in specific places that are subjected to modern forms of domination and associated pollution and human rights abuses. So these are images of what's called red mud. That's the official term for it. Red mud is a waste product from what's called the bearer process, which turns bauxite into aluminum oxide and then the aluminum oxide is turned into aluminum in a smelter. So 77 or more million tons of red mud are produced annually. Red mud cannot be disposed of easily. It is pumped into what are called holding ponds and just sits there for years, for decades. This wet ish stuff and it dries in the sun. If it gets too dry on the surface, it blew, dust, blows off of it. And that red dust can coat the, as you see the surrounding forests, but also the communities who often live very close to these red mud holding ponds or lakes as they call them. The land itself. Once it is completely dried out, it is sometimes planted over lightly with some grass. But it can never be restored for farming because it's too damaged. It never goes back to its original condition. So toxic red mud from bauxite mining, as well as the water and air pollution from aluminum refining, as well as the energy use for smelting, all have negative health effects on workers and nearby populations. They're as much a part of product of the age of aluminum as the sort of elegant air stream dynamic products that we associate with aluminum. And so this, the advertising of all those kind of alluring objects enroll us in this fantasy of mobile modernity. But this is mobile modernity to, this is what it leaves behind. This is one of the few images I could find in any of the sort of advertising of a Jamaican bauxite minor. But more commonly, you would recognize in this image that minds are generally done with heavy equipment. There's not a lot of miners who benefit from being paid high wages in the industry. It's very much automated and bauxite comes from open minds in Suriname, Jamaica, guinea, Russia, India, Australia, Brazil. Those are some of the biggest locations. You might note that all of those locations are places where the land has been taken from indigenous people and connected with very exploitative systems of land grabbing, displacement and environmental injustice. And I know this red mud spill that happened in Hungary in October 2010. When 1 million m³ of red mud accidentally spilled, killing ten people, destroying villages and contaminating a large area and it nearly spread into the Danube River. Well, Jamaica has an Suriname have a lot of these red mud lakes and they contain the same properties as this one in Hungary, which was very, very deadly when it collapsed. But they often get less attention because this one happened in Europe. It got a lot of attention. But there's constant spills happening in waterways and in lakes into rivers. And yeah, let me just say a little bit about aluminum. I call this aluminum by the numbers 13,500 kilowatt hours of electricity are needed to produce one ton of aluminum. Recycling would take only 5% as much energy as making new aluminum. And 3% of electricity generated world-wide goes to smelting. But in some countries it can take up one-third of the national electricity supply. So there's a lot to be said about the industrial production process. And I'm going to come back to that at the end because there's some recent changes that have happened in processing of aluminum. But this just gives a sense of some of the impacts. And companies like Alcoa talk about their use of renewable energy because they use hydroelectric dams. Hydroelectric dams around the world have been built to power smell tres. So the two choroid dam in Brazil flooded 2,860 km² of rainforest and displaced 24,000 or more people to power and aluminum smelter. The James Bay complex and Canada flooded 16,000 km², which affected the Creon Inuit people there. The acrosome, Bohdan, and Ghana created the world's largest man-made lake and displaced 84,000 people. Energy from these hydroelectric dams is largely going to aluminum smelting. Of course, there's the Belo Monte Dam in Brazil that you may have heard of more recently. So all of these massive hydroelectric dams around the country are touted as being low carbon renewable energy sources. Now the industry is also turning to geothermal power that they're trying to develop in places like Iceland and Greenland, which are also controversial. But Alcoa posits itself as a green company, along with the Anglo Australian anglophone companies like Rio Tinto, alkyne, which was a merger of a Canadian and Australian company. And they set themselves in contrast to companies like Rousseau. Rousseau, the Russian aluminum company is owned by Russian oligarchs. Oligarchs posca, friend of Vladimir Putin, and they're seen as the bad guys, whereas we produce green aluminum. This is current juke or hydro-power plant in Iceland, which reminds us of the environmental costs of the biggest wilderness area in Europe. And it was sacrificed to build this dam in 2006, 2007. And it reminds us that the huge energy demands of smelting and the environmental impacts mean that there is no costless clean technology, no purely green, wonderful aluminum out there. And this is the conundrum. Like how can it be both things at once? Will it be this truly global, recyclable, recycled green technology, or will it continue to sort of be this heavy industry that's associated with multinational corporations that are polluting the world. I went to this protest in Iceland in 2007 that was trying to stop the smelter that was associated with that that dam that I showed to forego aluminum might require us as societies to question our very attitudes towards mobility, lightness, and speed. So a post aluminum age, whether by choice or by necessity, would necessarily be slower and heavier and more sedentary. But it also might be a time when we take more care with how we produce the materials that we require, we put more effort into recycling these energy intensive materials and metals. And we value things like aluminum for the special qualities it affords us, rather than just sort of plowing through it and throwing it away. These were some of the protesters who I met at this saving Iceland event, and they came from around the world. There's a tiller Springer from Trinidad. There's someone from South Africa, people from India where they're from Greenland. They were all there to protest the aluminum industry. And it's not simply that we need to reject aluminum altogether, but that we need to understand the global spatial relationships between uneven speeds, uneven mobilities, uneven impacts, and how, what we call modernization enables some places to gain advantages to the detriment of others. What we can think of as uneven geographies. So seeking spatial justice and mobility justice require some degree of transparency about industrial processes and more democratization of transnational decision-making around the siting of production processes and the globalization of commodity chains. This would require public discussion and knowledge and input around what we're willing to sacrifice in order to continue the Aluminum Dreams of the 20th century that we are still living with. In Jamaica, there are small workshops that meltdown aluminum scrap to make new products by hand, like this guy here. And actually, I hadn't mentioned this, but what he's, what they're making when they melt that down is Bob Marley souvenirs, plates kind of thing. So it's feeding back into the tourism industry. And maybe we all need to take more care and how we reuse and recycle materials. And I know you had an earlier talk on Afro futurism. Maybe this is a kind of Afro futurism that we need to embrace. And so we've come full circle back to the dilemma, dilemmas that Buckminster Fuller addressed in his operating manual for Spaceship Earth, published in 1963, which first popularized the idea of the earth as a spaceship. And the vision of using technology to do more with less. And I think of the music like Lee Scratch Perry, that really sort of looks at that kind of Africa futurist vision and it's like a different take on spaceship Earth. So let me conclude with designing for sustainability and resilience in the 21st century. So brightness and darkness run as counterpoints throughout this project on aluminum mirror, mirror ring, it's different juxtapositions. The rhetorical kind of hype cycles around the promise of a miracle metal versus the deep disappointment in how it actually came out. The anti smelter activists who alleged greenwashing by industry brand managers versus the corporate social responsibility managers who describe aluminum as a energy bank and a green metal that improves our efficiency and our transport. The contrast between the ethereal lightness of modernity's dreams of mobility and communication on the one hand, and the heavy burdens of the weight of modernization, the gritty labors associated with it, and the destructive powers of its weaponry on the other. So the aluminum industry worked hard to become associated with eco-friendly technologies. When the MacBook Air says, it's light as air were meant to feel ourselves uplifted and we've, we've broken our ties to the Earth. And it's also things like wind turbines and solar powered buildings and prefab architecture as found in trendy magazines like dwell. It's all of these ideas that somehow aluminum is going to change our lifestyles and our spatial practices and our material culture in environmentally friendly ways. And these, we need different kinds of future scenarios. I think if we want to think about this material and what kind of transformations it can bring us. This is a thing called the micro compact home, which I went and visited at moma in 2008. And it's another, it's slogan was smart living for a short stay. It's this anodized aluminum cube which updates the concept of a modern machine for living. And it takes inspiration they write at the time in the history of pre-fabrication from the aerospace and automobile industries, the architects, high performance Cocoon is geared towards single persons with a mobile work or leisure oriented lifestyle. And you noticed as the solar panels, It's kind of self powering. And so these are the kinds of futures that are being, still being promoted. Of course, there's the Ford F150, which became the first pickup truck with aluminum body panels and bed. And was promoted by the head of Alcoa saying aluminum is greener than ever. It can be recycled endlessly with no degradation. He says 50 billion used beverage cans are recycled into auto and truck parts in the US every year. But he doesn't mention the other 56 billion that are thrown away and not recycled. And he talks about how recycling 110 ton of metal saves nine tons of CO2. But we don't recycle a very high proportion of our aluminum. We, most of it is still created from bauxite mining. Then on the other side of thinking about futures are this image at the time when I was writing the book was Iran's aluminum centrifuges that were enriching uranium for their power, nuclear power. But we're seeing as threats of the creation of nuclear bombs and write and that's an ongoing controversy, right, over nuclear uranium enrichment. And it reminds us of Bucky Fuller's kind of conundrum of aluminum as a warfare and weaponry or what he called an anticipatory living re, system. Is it for living or is it for living re, or weaponry? And some of us today are calling for D growth and slow movements and decarbonization. And we see things like this, a wind powered mega ship with aluminum sales being designed. It's called the UT wind challenge. It's got retractable aluminum cells. With some of those features in mind. I just want to end with something that I only just learned about a week or two ago about ellipses. This is a project between Alcoa and Rio Tinto alkyne, which claims it's a new era for the aluminum industry in it's headquartered in Montreal and they've created a, a zero-carbon new process for aluminum smelting. And they say the only output will be oxygen. And I wanted to play and promotional film to end with. And then we can turn to questions. And I don't think I can play it from here. So I'm going to hop out of my PowerPoint. And I'm going to go to this video presenting it lists in 18, 86. Something quite remarkable happened to men, one in France and one and America each came up with an identical invention. And almost simultaneously, they discovered the industrial process for making aluminum, a light, durable and infinitely recyclable material, it would transform the very fabric of the modern world. Aluminum became a vital part of our daily lives. Today, more than 130 years later comes to discovery just as revolutionary. There is a new way to make this miracle metal. It creates pure oxygen and it eliminates all greenhouse gas emissions. Traditional process used to make aluminum relies on carbon-based materials. This contributes to emissions of carbon dioxide and other climate warming gases. But this new breakthrough process eliminates the carbon. Instead, proprietary materials are used and there's only one byproduct oxygen, a world's first. The technology can create more aluminum and the same-sized smelting cell as the traditional process. And it can be installed in new facilities or retrofitted for existing ones. This innovation is being developed by Alice's, a new joint venture from Alcoa and Rio Tinto to global leaders and aluminum. Alice's will accelerate the development of the new technology with others, including Apple and the governments of Canada and Quebec. The potential is enormous. If only Canada's existing aluminum industry made the switch, we would eliminate carbon emissions equal to 1.8 million cars and generate as much pure oxygen is a forest the size of Lake Erie. It is with tremendous pride that Alice's introduces carbon-free yellow and a revolutionary process to further improve the world's most versatile and sustainable metal. A new era has done for the aluminum industry and for the planet. The helices. So with that, I'll open to questions and we'd love to hear your thoughts on the future. It's going to take a second now it's not. Thank you so much. I also represent the Zoom room, but I'm going to ask you a question first is myself. I want to first say though, that I was completely riveted by that talk. I thought it was so inspiring as a kind of material culture history. Thank you. A way to trace a material through different histories is just fantastic. But my question, I mean, Alyssa is amazing. I find that it has major Theranos vibes, but my question is actually a historical one that I think is more something you do in the earlier work. But I was really struck when you were. Doing the first part of the history because I feel like I've been taught, especially in an Americanist context that mid-century is the period when consumers become obsessed with disposable goods and you touch on that obviously. But I found that you were telling us that we need to think about aluminum differently that actually from its introduction into markets, it was never just about disposability. You had all these other words, the dematerialization for instance, really struck with me. But I was wondering if you might say something about the kind of conceptual, not that it seems like aluminum is from its very inception. How it might force us to rethink that fixation on disposability that a lot of us have learned. Yeah. So I would say disposability comes later. So initially, the thrill of aluminum is its portability. And what I came to realize in thinking about what were some of the objects that material objects that were made of aluminum. A lot of them have a special relationship to the human body because they're portable or they're lighter than what existed before. So I suppose like going through the inventory and came to things. Like, of course, pots and pans are heavy. Iron cast iron is really heavy. So when you have aluminum pots and pans, it kind of makes it a little easier to lift them around the kitchen. But ladders, wooden ladders are heavy. Aluminum was light. Aluminum boats were light, they were portable. Aluminum walkers and crutches made it much easier for people with physical injuries to move around or physical disability. Aluminum baseball bats transformed the ability to hit home runs until they had to regulate them. Aluminum guitars, aluminum tennis rackets, aluminum bike tubing. All of these things fit our bodies and made us feel stronger because they were easier to lift. And that's also why our laptops or aluminum, right? Because it's strong but it's light and portable. So that all came first. The disposability part comes in. There's a transition in its kinda really in the 19, well the 1960s where it really takes off in packaging. And they make it lighter and thinner and thinner to pressurize the cans and be able to again, it's lightness of them That's transportable. But It's with suburbanization and the use of aluminum siding on houses, where it begins to show how a degrades. And it begins to be associated with cheapness at that point. As the suburbs kind of start to devalue or degrade in some ways. And aluminum and there's the awareness about trash. Starting with the environmental movement that began with a sort of like pick up your trash kind of thing. That was a campaign partly by the industry to blame consumers for throwing their trash out, even though they were putting out all this packaging. But in that period it really became seen as a cheap like icky material. And I don't, I didn't go into that too much in the talk. So I'm focused more on the early period where it's wonderful and then it becomes cheaper. And as does plastic. Plastic comes to be seen as like this throwaway, cheap stuff and problem. And so what I end up moving towards is that we actually need to revaluate more, to value it, more for what it does allow us, not just trash it and throw it away. I just want to echo the thanks. That was absolutely fascinating. And Sarah use the word riveting and truly riveting. No pun intended middle, but also chilling in thinking about the devastation of mobile parks in Florida with the hurricane last week. And to think about the cyclical connections that you've uncovered in terms of climate crisis and their effects on the mining of bauxite, the red ponds, the release of carbon into the atmosphere. You can just start to connect the dots until we get to this extraordinary devastation of things that are made to be mobile and light and portable. And the kind of wreckage that we saw in photographs from from last week in Florida. That however, is not my question. My question is about the Alcoa archives. And to go back to those postwar cruises through the, through the Caribbean. And just as another side note, one of the images that you showed from the band. The band to dance from Haiti. That figure is so evocative of Jim Crow imagery from the 1880s and 1890s, right down to the pose and the costume. It just seems to reiterate and perpetuate racist stereotypes that were also part of plantation economies and part of a long, of course history of colonialism. But I guess my question is just for my own information though, I'm curious to know if you've been able to do any research in the archives, if they exist, if they're public. I mean, I'm especially interested to know whether there's any kind of photographic record of bauxite mining in the Caribbean at the same time that there's this public imagery that produces a very different kind of visual culture for a postwar consumer. Mainland population. Yeah, so there is some incredible archival material, not not just photographic film, short films are a lot of company produced. Film promotions would show their industrial locations. And those are really interesting. And I, they were harder to talk about book without being able to show the film itself. And there's a great one called aluminum on the March, which I sometimes play clips of. But they are the main archives. The company was headquartered in Pittsburgh and well in New Kensington, PA. And it was actually after the book was published that I had the opportunity to do a road trip with Jamaican filmmaker ester figure Ola, who made a wonderful film called Fly me to the moon that everybody should, should try to watch, which I was co-producer of because it was telling the story. But we went to all the locations and she went to all the locations where people were actually able to speak firsthand about their experience with the industry. But the Pennsylvania portion of the road trip, we went to New Kensington, PA and we went to It's called the Heinz archives. We went to the Alcoa headquarters, the original headquarters building, and then the new headquarters and their original research labs. And what was stunning to see there was that their original famous, famous research labs where they had invented all of these incredible things had been abandoned and left. Literally. It was being picked apart by like scrapers and we walked it could walk in the door of this abandoned building. And I was like, You're kidding me, This is, this is the famous research headquarters. And it had beautiful aluminum cast doors and window frames and handles. And they were being stripped out for scrap. And I was just like thunderstruck by this. And I was like, This company is really on hard times if they can't even save their own archival Material of their one of their key sites. And shortly after that, Alcoa was split in half and sold off a huge portion of their company and restructured and stuff. So they went through some bad times. And there are other famous Alcoa building which had been their headquarters, was being turned into condominiums at that time that I was visited. And we we we posed as like apartment buyers and got to go into the building and tour the apartments so that I can see all the like aluminium stuff that they had the building had been famously built with. So I don't know if that answered your question, but there's there's definitely archival material there. Yeah. We have a few questions coming in on Zoom. The first one comes from Sean Carroll, who says, I'm struck by the way, the aluminum visions you describe contrast with spatial theories, descriptions of people suppose a desire for the stability of place. This relates to Wendy's question. Along those lines, I'd love to hear more about these mid-century visions of domestic spaces made mobile by aluminum. I assume that advertising discourse was capitalizing on car culture and new interests in postwar travel. But are there other cultural forces that you saw aluminum proponents engaging with? Great question and let me begin by saying, there's, there's a wonderful short story by Charlotte Perkins Gilman from the 1920s called something like D01 has something, I forget the exact title. And it's this feminist futurist utopian story. And in the heart of the story is this. Mobile kitchen van that will come to your house and deliver this entire dinner in aluminum trays and Pam's and things. And you just have to heat it really quickly and you have your meal and then you fold it all up and it goes back on the van. It was to save women from housework. And she immediately saw aluminum as the way to do this. And so very early on it was associated with that notion. But to go back to Wendy's comment, the lightness and the desirability that I was talking about also has a dark side, right? In the on affordability of homes in the United States. And in the post-war period, there was the huge return of veterans and then the baby boomers, right? And they all needed housing. And so Levitt towns and then housing developments were built very quickly, but also mobile homes. Mobile homes took off in the post-war period as cheap housing. And so there's a whole class dimension of this, which is about the lack of place-based security, right? That the flexible like manner in which homes were thrown up and not very safe, right? Then what we see today of the fema trailers and then the mobile home parks that are destroyed by the weather, right? By hurricanes, tornadoes, all of that shows that that lightness and that idea of being on the road and being mobile has a dark side to right, which is that we're totally rootless and we're easily wiped out. Yeah. I had a question about anything back to the aluminum cast of the Washington Monument and then the artwork from also the 19th century. When I see this, it doesn't strike me as like functional objects in the way that aluminum later became used. Was there like when was the point in which aluminum became that functional material as opposed to a material for art or models? Yes, Good question which I tell in the book, which is that it's when it became affordable enough to use for other things and when design campaigns kinda promoted it also for its use. So the early uses of aluminum, or because it was very, very expensive to make. And as they improved the process, what became so those two guys Hall, Charles Martin Hall, and Paul Through French and American, and they were both 23 years old. They invented this melting process, electrolytic process. It was very, very expensive. And then they had a patent called the hall hero pattern. And then some improvements had to be made on that to scale it up to industrial scale. And that took until the 1820s, 19-teens, I mean, World War One in the teens began to really kick off the efforts to make it more affordable on a bigger scale. And it played an important part in World War one also, which I didn't go into too much. And so then that increased production of it, made it more affordable. And then the, the industry was kinda like, well, what are we gonna do with it? Like the war is over. And they actually hired designers to come up with ideas on how to use it so that people would get used to the idea wasn't like a natural thing. They had to invent a market. And there's a famous book by florence ASHRAE Leroy, a French historian of aluminum, who talks about the invention of the market. And after that, it became more and more of a everyday commonplace material. We have one more question from Zoom. And it's also a design history question. It comes from Gretchen von Kooning who says, absolutely wonderful talk. Thank you. I'm interested in this comparison to the use of plastic in home goods that get their nods from the teardrop or aerodynamic forms of aluminum. Thinking about those two materials, it strikes me that aluminum might have a more masculine or stayed material association and plastics. And their use of color and bubble-like forms might be more feminine or playful in their material association. So could you say more about how gender played into aluminums cultural associations? Yeah, I mean, that's an interesting hypothesis. But I would say that there is a kind of aluminum which was very colorful. And so they could put color codings on aluminum. And then it was designed into all sorts of more, let's call them more feminine objects. And plastic also could be designed into more masculine. Objects. So I don't think the material themselves were necessarily coded as one or the other. It depended on the US that they were put to. And I've maybe I have probably focused more on the, let's call that makes sense, but the masculine qualities or sides of aluminum then on the more decorative. And a lot of architects also used aluminum for decorative and colorful sort of finishes and textures. And so there's another side of that design story that could be explored further. And plastic had the same problem, let's say in the 1960's and 70's, of becoming associated with a throwaway culture. And like things that were ersatz, that were phony, that were fake, both aluminum and plastic were seen as having a fake quality, which kind of tarnish to them in a way. But it depends how, when, what kind of design they're being used and what for. I have one question that I'd love to ask as a follow-up. Then I'm reminded of a Roland Barthes essay in mythology on plastic. And very much writing about that kind of quality of plastic as a semi-log graph. I don't, he doesn't use that term in the essay, but I'm going to throw it in there. That plastic is something that you can make anything out of, but it's never the actual thing. It's always a copy of something that before wasn't made from plastic, and now it's made of plastic. We just go along as if we're still using the thing, but now we're actually using copy of the thing. That's sort of one of the points that he makes in that essay. And I love that. I love how he describes plastic as this false or fake or simply a copy of the real thing. And it strikes me that aluminum because it's classified as a metal. Maybe has had those kinds of throwaway disposability and maybe even fake connotations. But maybe there's something about it being this luminous metallic substance in its most common forms, um, that that sort of makes it okay. So an example, we know we're not supposed to use plastic straws anymore, right? That's a big deal. But they've been replaced now with reusable and recyclable aluminum straws. And so there's something that where aluminum gets to keep going. Even if, if plastic becomes something that is really stigmatized in many contexts. And certainly in many sort of, you know, particularly gendered in class and raised contexts. So I just wonder if you might reflect on that a little bit. Yeah. There's a wonderful history of plastic written by trying to remember his name. It's Mike something Michael MEI KLA. And InDesign history. When you look at the both the early uses of plastic and aluminum, it was first used as a replacement material for wood or something else or some other metal. Right? And so if you think of like Bakelite, plastic objects like it'd be like, OK, well, your radio set could now be in plastic. I mean, no tables, furniture. They would see a very old fashion design of chair or something, and it could be cast into plastic or aluminum. That's phase one. And then you get past that replacement phase where designers are like, Oh, but what can we do with this new material that's like a whole new object. And then that's when you start to get like the plastic bubble shapes and round things and aluminum aerodynamic shaped things. Because they're, they're kinda working with the material and thinking like what are the new things we can do with this? We can make transparent clothing, whatever. We can hang things from the ceiling and soft shapes and all of that. So plastic kind of went, also went through a high-end, especially 1960s design phase, right? And then you get the mass market phase where then it becomes like, well, it's just this cheap everyday thing and it's used for all sorts of purposes. So I don't think the material itself isn't necessarily linked to a different trajectory because of what it is. I think it goes through different design processes and phases. And right now, aluminum is returned. Returning to the top of the heap of like, wow, like nanomaterials and what did they call it the metal, the miracle metal. And so it's hype, but it's also design and industrial processing and technological breakthroughs and new developments. What makes aluminum very different from plastic is that it's an alloy. It's alloyed with other metals. And so it has dozens and hundreds of different alloy versions of it which have different material qualities. Plastic was never that differentiated. Let's say it's more of a I mean, there's there's a few various kinds of plastic, but not as many as there are alloys that actually have different qualities and properties. So thank you everyone for those wonderful questions. Yes. Thank you so much. Thank you.
Aluminum Futures-Mimi Sheller
From Robert Diiorio October 14, 2022
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